為大家整理了2013年4月20日托福閱讀真題（新東方），僅供參考?。?BR> 第一篇 重復(fù)2011.4.15NA 行星的形成
有一篇講行星怎樣形成的，建議大家看看相關(guān)內(nèi)容，滿難的。閱讀只記得一個講行星的文章介紹幾個行星：木星、土星??說很大一部分的比例都是水和冰
版本二 太陽系的形成
1 原材料：成分：大部分為helium和XXX,小部分為常見的固態(tài)和氣態(tài)分子
2 形成過程：某爆發(fā)形成碰撞，導(dǎo)致了引力和rotation。關(guān)于rotation，用ice-skater打比方
3 類地行星：成為主要為固態(tài)。
4 遠(yuǎn)日行星：重力能產(chǎn)生熱能，導(dǎo)致溫度上升。隨著太陽形成，形成過程停止（大意），溫度下降，冰得以存在，所以密度小。而體積大導(dǎo)致引力強(qiáng)，可吸引更輕的氣態(tài)分子。
第二篇 重復(fù)2011.11.12NA 中世紀(jì)商人行會
這篇講貿(mào)易的。貌似說中世紀(jì)歐洲吧，商人為了生存都結(jié)成團(tuán)伙了。統(tǒng)一團(tuán)伙內(nèi)的產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量，培養(yǎng)學(xué)徒。但是它的主要目的呢（有題），還是抵制非團(tuán)伙成員非競爭，因此也必須與政府有聯(lián)系。非團(tuán)伙成員也有優(yōu)勢的，產(chǎn)品價格低（有題），而且可以雇傭農(nóng)工，很便宜啦！最后一段說，但是這種團(tuán)伙內(nèi)部的公平呢，其實只是理論上的（有題），能力啊，雄心啊，都會導(dǎo)致團(tuán)伙成員中一部分有錢，一部分沒錢，有錢的就擴(kuò)張，沒錢的就*要公平啊！（排序題）
歐洲中世紀(jì)行會制度 Guild
先講大師傅 master 的出道過程。然后是整個行會的排他性。接著是行會和城邦政府怎么樣由前提相互支持（壟斷），到后來政府看中壟斷的大面包，于是插手進(jìn)來分一杯羹。除了政府以外，行會的另一個強(qiáng)勁對手是城外不受法律約束而且擁有廉價勞動力（農(nóng)民工）的個體企業(yè)。后來行會競爭。不過，成本拼不過，價格當(dāng)然也拼不過，同時又遇到一些供應(yīng)上的困難，所以結(jié)果。。。還有，他們自己本身也有矛盾，主要是 master 們有些很有野心，想要擴(kuò)張。所以簡單說就是內(nèi)憂外患。
版本二：中世紀(jì)行會
1 目的：主要---經(jīng)濟(jì)穩(wěn)定性和排他性；次要---將門徒訓(xùn)練為大師，高質(zhì)量，統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的商品。
2 問題：內(nèi)憂外患：內(nèi)---master數(shù)量太多，外---其他城市的商人競爭。其競爭力來自更低的價格和利用鄉(xiāng)村廉價勞動力。同時政府難以管理城市外的競爭者。
3 影響：獨(dú)立性和自制性受到威脅。商人行會和手工業(yè)者行會（不確定）
第三篇：貿(mào)易的發(fā)展
Bartering 和states的關(guān)系
1 barter建立在復(fù)雜的社會和政治機(jī)構(gòu)上（好像提及了一個19C70S的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)）
2 假說一：有R提出，農(nóng)業(yè)和交通等的發(fā)展，使得長距離的物物交換成為可能。奢侈品也參與到這樣的交換中來。同時需要世俗君主的介入。
反駁：XXX在那個時候還沒出現(xiàn)。
3 假說二：由另一個R提出，以maya為例（不確定）。他們?nèi)鄙倌承┲匾Y源，所以必須和周邊環(huán)境交換。而且他們的communities都面對這種問題，所以必須和周邊的其他地區(qū)進(jìn)行交換。一旦這種交換成為常態(tài)，就需要政府的規(guī)范。
反駁：可能是其他原因?qū)е铝苏男袨? 4 結(jié)論：商業(yè)或經(jīng)濟(jì)因素不可能是states形成的原因。很多因素影響著政治。甚至機(jī)經(jīng)本身就是某種政治條件下的結(jié)果，而非原因。
命中點題講義文章
2011.4.15NA
IC Formation of Planets[ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System]
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun's formation.[ Douglas N. C. Lin (May 2008). "The Genesis of Planets". Scientific American 298 (5): 50–59.] The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is known as accretion, in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar. Through direct contact, these grains formed into clumps up to 200 metres in diameter, which in turn collided to form larger bodies (planetesimals) of ~10 kilometres (km) in size. These gradually increased through further collisions, growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years.
The inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes.
When the terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. The gas was partially supported by pressure and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits.[ Staff. "How Earth Survived Birth". Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved 2010-02-04.]
The gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets, allowing the Jovian planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements.[ Ann Zabludoff (University of Arizona) (Spring 2003). "Lecture 13: The Nebular Theory of the origin of the Solar System". Retrieved 2006-12-27.] Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to four Earth masses within about 3 million years. Today, the four gas giants comprise just under 99% of all the mass orbiting the Sun. Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line. Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material, it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun. In effect, the frost line acted as a barrier that caused material to accumulate rapidly at ~5 AU from the Sun. This excess material coalesced into a large embryo of about 10 Earth masses, which then began to grow rapidly by swallowing hydrogen from the surrounding disc, reaching 150 Earth masses in only another 1000 years and finally topping out at 318 Earth masses. Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter, when there was less gas available to consume.
T Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did, when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material. As a result, the planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium—not more than 1 Earth mass each. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores.[ E. W. Thommes, M. J. Duncan, H. F. Levison (2002). "The Formation of Uranus and Neptune among Jupiter and Saturn". Astronomical Journal 123 (5): 2862.] The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation. At the current locations it would have taken a hundred million years for their cores to accrete. This means that Uranus and Neptune probably formed closer to the Sun—near or even between Jupiter and Saturn—and later migrated outward (see Planetary migration below).[ Harold F. Levison, Alessandro Morbidelli, Crista Van Laerhoven et al. (2007). "Origin of the Structure of the Kuiper Belt during a Dynamical Instability in the Orbits of Uranus and Neptune". Icarus 196 (1): 258.] Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt.[ Emily Lakdawalla (2006). "Stardust Results in a Nutshell: The Solar Nebula was Like a Blender". The Planetary Society. Retrieved 2007-01-02.]
Based on recent computer model studies, the complex organic molecules necessary for life may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of the Earth. According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other stars that acquire planets.[ Moskowitz, Clara (29 March 2012). "Life's Building Blocks May Have Formed in Dust Around Young Sun". Space.com. Retrieved 30 March 2012.]
After between three and ten million years, the young Sun's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets.[ B. G. Elmegreen (1979). "On the disruption of a protoplanetary disc nebula by a T Tauri like solar wind". Astronomy & Astrophysics 80: 77.][ Heng Hao (24 November 2004). "Disc-Protoplanet interactions". Harvard University. Retrieved 2006-11-19.]
IC 中世紀(jì)商人行會
Merchant Guilds in the Middle Ages[ http://www.middle-ages.org.uk/merchant-guilds-in-the-middle-ages.htm]
The guilds in the Middle Ages were an important part of Medieval life. A higher social status could be achieved through membership to Merchant guilds. There were two main kinds of Medieval guilds - Merchant Guilds and Craft Guilds. The word “guild” is from the Saxon “gilden” meaning "to pay" and refers to the subscription paid to the Guilds by their members.
The system of Feudalism during the Middle Ages allowed the lords and owners of the land to tax the people and their trades. As trade increased in the Middle Ages the taxes became excessive. A single person had no chance of making any objections to the rate and amount of tax that the lord demanded. The idea of Merchant Guilds was born. A Merchant Guild was an association of of traders. The Merchant Guild was able to negotiate with the lord and the trade levy became regulated. The regulations agreed between the Merchant Guild and the lord resulted in a Merchant Guild charter. The Merchant Guild charter allowed the merchants to pay an annual payment, or fixed sum, to the lord who owned the land where the town was based.
Rules of the Merchant Guilds during the Middle Ages
The members of the Merchant Guilds became powerful. The Merchant Guilds controlled the way in which trade was conducted in the town. The merchant Guilds applied rules to the way in which trade was conducted during the Middle Ages. These rules were included in the charters of the Merchant Guilds and included:
A ban on, or fines imposed, on any illicit trading by non Merchant Guild members
Fines were imposed on any Merchant Guild members who violated the Merchant Guilds charter
Members of the Merchant Guilds were protected and any Merchant Guild member who fell sick was cared for by the guild. Burials of guild members were arranged and the Merchant Guilds undertook to care for any orphans
The members of Merchant Guilds also provided protection of their horses, wagons, and goods when moving about the land as travelling during the Middle Ages was dangerous
Members of the Merchant Guilds in the Middle AgesThe leading members of the Merchant Guilds became very important members of the Medieval town community of the Middle Ages. Leading Merchant Guild members adopted the role of spokesperson for all of the members. The introduction of the Merchant guilds in a town or city lead to its own hierarchy and involvement in civic duties:
The chief spokesman of a Merchant Guild became the mayor of the town, or city
The leading delegates of the Merchant Guilds became the Aldermen of the town or city
The other members of the Merchant Guilds became the burghers of the town or city
The power of the Merchant Guild members increased to such an extent that the livelihood of individual trades or crafts within a Medieval town, or city, were being jeopardised. The Merchant Guilds were imposing regulations on the individual traders or craftsmen to regulate prices and supply. The individual workers of trades or crafts followed the example of the Merchant Guilds who had objected to the lords of land and in turn raised objections to the Merchant Guilds. The individual crafts and trades established their own guilds. The Craft Guilds were then established in the Medieval town or city of the Middle Ages.
考生可收藏托福頻道,查看更多關(guān)于托?？荚囅嚓P(guān)的信息??！ 相關(guān)推薦：托?？荚嚬俜綀竺肟?
考生可收藏托福頻道,查看更多關(guān)于托?？荚囅嚓P(guān)的信息??！ 相關(guān)推薦：托?？荚嚬俜綀竺肟?